the term behavior refers to what we do in response to our attitudes and beliefs.

11.3 Attitudes & Persuasion

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will exist able to:

Define attitude
Draw how people'southward attitudes are internally changed through cognitive dissonance
Explain how people'south attitudes are externally changed through persuasion
Depict the peripheral and central routes to persuasion

Social psychologists accept documented how the power of the situation can influence our behaviors. At present we turn to how the power of the situation can influence our attitudes and behavior. Attitudes are our evaluation of people, ideas, or objects. We accept attitudes for many things, ranging from products that we might selection upward in the supermarket to people around the world to political policies. Attitudes are favorable or unfavorable: positive or negative (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). They are complex. Specifically, attitudes are composed of three components: an affective component (feelings), a behavioral component (the effect of the mental attitude on behavior), and a cerebral component (conventionalities and knowledge) (Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960).

For example, you may hold a positive attitude toward recycling. This mental attitude should result in general positive feelings toward recycling (such every bit "It makes me feel skillful to recycle" or "I enjoy knowing that I brand a minor difference in reducing the amount of waste that ends up in landfills"). This attitude will exert a directive influence on your behavior (i.east. increasing the likelihood of sure behaviors, while not perfectly predicting your behavior): You recycle every bit often as y'all can, even if y'all cannot ever recycle due to extenuating circumstances. Finally, this mental attitude will be reflected past many thoughts, virtually likely a majority of which will be favorable given your positive mental attitude (for example, "Recycling is expert for the surround" or "Recycling is the responsible thing to do"; "Recycling is hard work").

Our attitudes and behavior are not only influenced by external forces, but likewise by internal influences that we control. Like our behavior, our attitudes and thoughts are not always changed by situational pressures, only they can be consciously inverse past our own free will. In this section we discuss the atmospheric condition nether which nosotros would want to change our ain attitudes and beliefs.

WHAT IS COGNITIVE Noise?

Social psychologists take documented that feeling good virtually ourselves and maintaining positive self-esteem is a powerful motivator of human behavior (Tavris & Aronson, 2008). In the United States, members of the predominant culture typically recall very highly of themselves and view themselves as good people who are above boilerplate on many desirable traits (Ehrlinger, Gilovich, & Ross, 2005). Oft, our behavior, attitudes, and beliefs are affected when nosotros experience a threat to our cocky-esteem or positive self-epitome. Psychologist Leon Festinger (1957) defined cognitive dissonance as psychological discomfort arising from belongings ii or more than inconsistent attitudes, behaviors, or cognitions (thoughts, beliefs, or opinions). Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance states that when we feel a conflict in our behaviors, attitudes, or beliefs that runs counter to our positive self-perceptions, we feel psychological discomfort (i.eastward. dissonance). For case, if you believe smoking is bad for your health but you keep to smoke, you experience conflict between your belief and behavior (effigy below).

Cognitive racket is aroused by inconsistent behavior and behaviors. Believing cigarettes are bad for your health, but smoking cigarettes anyway, can cause cognitive racket. To reduce cerebral dissonance, individuals can change their behavior, as in quitting smoking, or alter their belief, such as discounting the bear witness that smoking is harmful. (credit "cigarettes": modification of piece of work by CDC/Debora Cartagena; "patch": modification of "RegBarc"/Wikimedia Commons; "smoking": modification of work by Tim Parkinson)

Later research documented that only conflicting cognitions that threaten individuals' positive cocky-image cause dissonance (Greenwald & Ronis, 1978). Boosted research found that dissonance is not only psychologically uncomfortable but also can cause physiological arousal (Croyle & Cooper, 1983) and activate regions of the brain of import in emotions and cognitive functioning (van Veen, Krug, Schooler, & Carter, 2009). When we experience cognitive dissonance, nosotros are motivated to decrease it considering it is psychologically, physically, and mentally uncomfortable. We tin reducecognitive racket by bringing our cognitions, attitudes, and behaviors in line—that is, making them harmonious. This tin can be done in dissimilar ways, such as:

changing our discrepant behavior (e.g., stop smoking),
changing our cognitions through rationalization or denial (e.g., telling ourselves that wellness risks can be reduced by smoking filtered cigarettes),
calculation a new cognition (e.thou., "Smoking suppresses my ambition so I don't become overweight, which is skilful for my health.").

Information technology is often easier to change our attitudes or rationalize than to change our behaviors, especially by behaviors. Consider a classic case of cognitive noise. John is a 20-yr-sometime who enlists in the military. During kick military camp he is awakened at 5:00 a.m., is chronically slumber deprived, yelled at, covered in sand flea bites, physically hobbling and battered, and mentally exhausted (figure beneath). It gets worse. Recruits that arrive to week 11 of boot camp accept to exercise 54 hours of continuous training.

A person who has chosen a difficult path must deal with cerebral dissonance in addition to many other discomforts. (credit: Tyler J. Bolken)

Not surprisingly, John is miserable. No one likes to be miserable. In this type of situation, people tin change their beliefs, their attitudes, or their behaviors. The last choice, a change of behaviors, is non available to John. He has signed on to the armed services for iv years, and he cannot legally leave.

If John keeps thinking about how miserable he is, it is going to be a very long four years. He will exist in a constant state of cognitive dissonance. As an alternative to this misery, John can change his beliefs or attitudes. He tin tell himself, "I am becoming stronger, healthier, and sharper. I am learning discipline and how to defend myself and my country. What I am doing is really important." If this is his conventionalities, he will realize that he is condign stronger through his challenges. He then will experience better and non feel cognitive dissonance, which is an uncomfortable state. In other words, John is likely to rationalize his uncomfortable situation past adding positive thoughts and irresolute his mental attitude towards the misery he has committed to since his beliefs cannot be altered due to the war machine contract.

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The Effect of Initiation

The military instance demonstrates the observation that a hardinitiation into a group influences the states to like the groupmore, due to the justification of effort. We practice not desire to take wasted time and effort to join a group that nosotros eventually leave. A classic experiment by Aronson and Mills (1959) demonstrated this justification of endeavor effect. College students volunteered to join a campus group that would meet regularly to discuss the psychology of sex. Participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 atmospheric condition: no initiation, an like shooting fish in a barrel initiation, and a difficult initiation into the group. After participating in the first give-and-take, which was deliberately made very deadening, participants rated how much they liked the group. Participants who underwent a hard initiation process to bring together the group rated the group more favorably than did participants with an piece of cake initiation or no initiation (figure below).

Justification of effort has a singled-out event on a person liking a grouping. Students in the hard initiation status liked the group more than students in other conditions due to the justification of attempt.

Similar effects can be seen in a more than contempo study of how student effort affects class evaluations. Heckert, Latier, Ringwald-Burton, and Drazen (2006) surveyed 463 undergraduates enrolled in courses at a midwestern academy about the amount of effort that their courses required of them. In addition, the students were too asked to evaluate various aspects of the course. Given what you've just read, it will come as no surprise that those courses that were associated with the highest level of effort were evaluated as beingness more than valuable than those that did not. Furthermore, students indicated that they learned more in courses that required more try, regardless of the grades that they received in those courses (Heckert et al., 2006).

Likewise the classic military example and group initiation, tin can you lot think of other examples ofcerebral racket? Here is 1: Marco and Maria live in Fairfield County, Connecticut, which is one of the wealthiest areas in the United States and has a very high cost of living. Marco telecommutes from home and Maria does not piece of work outside of the abode. They rent a very small house for more than $3000 a month. Maria shops at consignment stores for clothes and economizes where she tin can. They mutter that they never have any money and that they cannot buy anything new. When asked why they do not move to a less expensive location, since Marco telecommutes, they respond that Fairfield County is beautiful, they beloved the beaches, and they experience comfortable there. How does the theory of cognitive noise apply to Marco and Maria'due south choices?

PERSUASION

In the previous department we discussed that the motivation to reduce cognitive dissonance leads us to alter our attitudes, behaviors, and/or cognitions to make them consonant. Persuasion is the process of changing our attitude toward something based on some kind of advice. Much of the persuasion we experience comes from outside forces. How do people convince others to change their attitudes, behavior, and behaviors (figure below)? What communications practise you receive that endeavor to persuade you lot to change your attitudes, behavior, and behaviors?

We see attempts at persuasion attempts everywhere. Persuasion is not express to formal advertising; we are confronted with it throughout our everyday earth. (credit: Robert Couse-Baker)

A subfield of social psychology studies persuasion and social influence, providing us with a plethora of information on how humans can be persuaded by others.

Yale Mental attitude Change Arroyo

The topic of persuasion has been 1 of the most extensively researched areas in social psychology (Fiske et al., 2010). During the Second World War, CarlHovland extensively researched persuasion for the U.S. Army. After the war, Hovland continued his exploration of persuasion at Yale University. Out of this work came a model called theYale attitude change arroyo, which describes the conditions under which people tend to change their attitudes. Hovland demonstrated that sure features of the source of a persuasive message, the content of the message, and the characteristics of the audience volition influence the persuasiveness of a message (Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953). In other words, who (i.e. source) says what (i.e. content) to whom (i.e. audience)?

Features of the source of the persuasive message include the credibility of the speaker (Hovland & Weiss, 1951) and the physical attractiveness of the speaker (Eagly & Chaiken, 1975; Piffling, Wegener, & Fabrigar, 1997). Thus, speakers who are credible, or have expertise on the topic, and who are deemed every bit trustworthy are more than persuasive than less credible speakers. Similarly, more attractive speakers are more persuasive than less bonny speakers. The use of famous actors and athletes to advertise products on telly and in print relies on this principle. The firsthand and long term affect of the persuasion also depends, however, on the credibility of the messenger (Kumkale & Albarracín, 2004).

Features of the message itself that bear on persuasion include subtlety (the quality of existence of import, simply not obvious) (Piffling & Cacioppo, 1986; Walster & Festinger, 1962); sidedness (that is, having more than than one side) (Crowley & Hoyer, 1994; Igou & Bless, 2003; Lumsdaine & Janis, 1953); timing (Haugtvedt & Wegener, 1994; Miller & Campbell, 1959), and whether both sides are presented. Messages that are more subtle are more than persuasive than direct messages. Arguments that occur first, such as in a debate, are more influential if messages are given back-to-back. However, if in that location is a delay after the first message, and before the audience needs to brand a determination, the last bulletin presented will tend to be more persuasive (Miller & Campbell, 1959).

Features of the audition that affect persuasion are attention (Albarracín & Wyer, 2001; Festinger & Maccoby, 1964), intelligence, self-esteem (Rhodes & Wood, 1992), and age (Krosnick & Alwin, 1989). In order to be persuaded, audition members must exist paying attention. People with lower intelligence are more than easily persuaded than people with higher intelligence; whereas people with moderate self-esteem are more than hands persuaded than people with higher or lower self-esteem (Rhodes & Woods, 1992). Finally, younger adults aged 18–25 are more than persuadable than older adults.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

An especially popular model that describes the dynamics of persuasion is the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (Piffling & Cacioppo, 1986). Theelaboration likelihood model considers the variables of the attitude modify approach—that is, features of the source of the persuasive message, contents of the bulletin, and characteristics of the audience are used to determine when mental attitude modify volition occur. According to the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion, there are two main routes that play a role in delivering a persuasive message: central and peripheral (figure below).

Persuasion tin can take 1 of two paths, and the immovability of the stop consequence depends on the path.

The central road is logic driven and uses data and facts to convince people of an argument's worthiness. For example, a automobile company seeking to persuade you to purchase their model volition emphasize the car's safe features and fuel economic system. This is a direct route to persuasion that focuses on the quality of the information. In order for the central road of persuasion to be constructive in changing attitudes, thoughts, and behaviors, the statement must be strong and, if successful, will result in lasting attitude modify.

The primal road to persuasion works all-time when the target of persuasion, or the audition, is analytical and willing to engage in processing of the data. From an advertiser'south perspective, what products would exist all-time sold using the fundamental route to persuasion? What audition would virtually probable exist influenced to buy the product? One example is ownership a computer. It is likely, for example, that small business owners might be peculiarly influenced by the focus on the estimator's quality and features such equally processing speed and memory chapters.

The peripheral road is an indirect road that uses peripheral cues to associate positivity with the bulletin (Little & Cacioppo, 1986). Instead of focusing on the facts and a product's quality, the peripheral road relies on association with positive characteristics such as positive emotions and glory endorsement. For case, having a pop athlete advertise athletic shoes is a common method used to encourage young adults to buy the shoes. This route to attitude change does not crave much endeavour or data processing. This method of persuasion may promote positivity toward the bulletin or product, but it typically results in less permanent attitude or behavior change. The audience does not demand to be belittling or motivated to process the bulletin. In fact, a peripheral route to persuasion may non even be noticed by the audience, for example in the strategy of product placement. Product placement refers to putting a production with a articulate brand name or make identity in a TV show or movie to promote the product (Gupta & Lord, 1998). For case, one season of the reality serialAmerican Idol prominently showed the panel of judges drinking out of cups that displayed the Coca-Cola logo. What other products would exist best sold using the peripheral road to persuasion? Another case is wear: A retailer may focus on celebrities that are wearing the same mode of wear.

Foot-in-the-door Technique

Researchers accept tested many persuasion strategies that are effective in selling products and irresolute people'due south attitude, ideas, and behaviors. One constructive strategy is the pes-in-the-door technique (Cialdini, 2001; Pliner, Hart, Kohl, & Saari, 1974). Using the foot-in-the-door technique, the persuader gets a person to agree to bestow a small-scale favor or to buy a minor detail, only to after asking a larger favor or buy of a bigger item. This strategy employs peoples want for consistency to get them to comply with a asking (Cialdini, 2001), similar to the motivation that lead to cerebral noise. Our past behavior often directs our future behavior, and we take a desire to maintain consistency once we have a committed to a behavior. The human foot-in-the-door technique was demonstrated in a written report by Freedman and Fraser (1966) in which participants who agreed to post small sign in their yard or sign a petition were more than likely to agree to put a big sign in their yard than people who were non approached previously and were asked virtually the large sign in their first interaction with the experimenter (figure below).

With the human foot-in-the-door technique, a minor request such equally (a) wearing a campaign button can turn into a large request, such as (b) putting campaigns signs in your yard. (credit a: modification of work past Joe Crawford; credit b: modification of work by "shutterblog"/Flickr)

A common application of foot-in-the-door technique is when teens enquire their parents for a small-scale permission (for instance, extending curfew by a half 60 minutes) and then asking them for something larger. Having granted the smaller asking increases the likelihood that parents will acquiesce with the later on, larger request.

How would a store owner employ the foot-in-the-door technique to sell y'all an expensive product? For case, say that you are buying the latest model smartphone, and the salesperson suggests you purchase the best information plan. You agree to this. The salesperson then suggests a bigger purchase—the three-yr extended warranty. Later agreeing to the smaller request, you lot are more likely to also agree to the larger request. You may take encountered this if you lot have bought a car. When salespeople realize that a buyer intends to buy a certain model, they might try to get the customer to pay for many or nigh available options on the auto.

SUMMARY

Attitudes are our evaluations or feelings toward a person, idea, or object and typically are positive or negative. Our attitudes and beliefs are influenced not only by external forces, merely as well by internal influences that we control. An internal class of mental attitude change is cognitive racket or the tension nosotros experience when our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are in conflict. In order to reduce dissonance, individuals tin change their behavior, attitudes, or cognitions, or add a new cognition. External forces of persuasion include advertising; the features of advertising that influence our behaviors include the source, message, and audition. There are two master routes to persuasion. The central road to persuasion uses facts and information to persuade potential consumers. The peripheral route uses positive association with cues such equally beauty, fame, and positive emotions.

References:

Openstax Psychology text by Kathryn Dumper, William Jenkins, Arlene Lacombe, Marilyn Lovett and Marion Perlmutter licensed under CC BY v4.0. https://openstax.org/details/books/psychology

Exercises

Review Questions:

1. Attitudes describe our ________ of people, objects, and ideas.

a. treatment

b. evaluations

c. cognitions

d. knowledge

ii. Cerebral noise causes discomfort because it disrupts our sense of ________.

a. dependency

b. unpredictability

c. consistency

d. power

3. In order for the fundamental route to persuasion to exist effective, the audition must be ________ and ________.

a. analytical; motivated

b. circumspect; happy

c. intelligent; unemotional

d. gullible; distracted

iv. Examples of cues used in peripheral route persuasion include all of the following except ________.

a. celebrity endorsement

b. positive emotions

c. attractive models

d. factual information

Disquisitional Thinking Questions:

ane. Give an example (one not used in class or your text) of cognitive noise and how an private might resolve this.

2. Imagine that you work for an advertising bureau, and you've been tasked with developing an advertising campaign to increase sales of Bliss Soda. How would you develop an advertisement for this product that uses a central route of persuasion? How would you develop an ad using a peripheral route of persuasion?

Personal Application Questions:

1. Cognitive dissonance oft arises after making an important decision, called post-decision dissonance (or in popular terms, buyer's remorse). Draw a recent conclusion yous made that caused racket and depict how you resolved it.

2. Describe a time when you or someone yous know used the foot-in-the-door technique to gain someone'south compliance.

Glossary:

mental attitude

central route persuasion

cognitive racket

foot-in-the-door technique

peripheral road persuasion

persuasion

Answer to Exercises

Review Questions:

1. B

2. C

3. A

4. D

Critical Thinking Questions:

1. 1 case is choosing which college to nourish—the public school close to abode or the Ivy League school out of land. Since both schools are desirable, the student is likely to experience cognitive dissonance in making this determination. In lodge to justify choosing the public school close to home, the student could change her knowledge most Ivy League school, asserting that it is as well expensive and the quality of education at the public schoolhouse is just as good. She could change her attitude toward the Ivy League school and determine that the students at that place are also stuffy and wouldn't make good classmates.

2. Although potential answers volition vary, advertisements using the cardinal route of persuasion might involve a dr. listing logical reasons for drinking this production. For example, the doctor might cite research suggesting that the soda is better than alternatives because of its reduced calorie content, lack of adverse health consequences, etc. An advertizing using a peripheral route of persuasion might show very attractive people consuming the product while spending time on a cute, sunny beach.

Glossary:

attitude: evaluations of or feelings toward a person, idea, or object that are typically positive or negative

central route persuasion: logic-driven arguments using information and facts to convince people of an statement'southward worthiness

cognitive dissonance:psychological discomfort that arises from a conflict in a person'southward behaviors, attitudes, or beliefs that runs counter to one's positive self perception

foot-in-the-door technique: persuasion of one person by another person, encouraging a person to concur to a modest favor, or to buy a modest item, but to after request a larger favor or purchase of a larger detail

peripheral route persuasion: one person persuades another person; an indirect route that relies on association of peripheral cues (such as positive emotions and celebrity endorsement) to acquaintance positivity with a bulletin

persuasion:process of changing our mental attitude toward something based on some form of advice

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Source: https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/11-4-attitudes-persuassion/